by Geeta Kumari
“On 26 January 1950, we are going to enter into a life of contradictions. In politics, we will have equality and in the social and economic life, we will have inequality. In politics, we will be recognising the principle of one man, one vote, one value. In our social and economic life, we shall, by reason of our social and economic structure, continue to deny the principle of one man, one value.”
– Dr BR Ambedkar
India’s imagined tryst with destiny continues to be marred by alarming issues of caste, religion and enforced social hierarchy in the 21st century. Despite numerous measures to eradicate the caste system at its foundation, such attempts have been met with relentless resistance by the dominant castes throughout the history of ‘independent’ India despite constitutional guarantees and prohibition of discrimination. Since the dream of an India free of follies including caste system and gender disparity, among other issues, is still as elusive as it was at the time of the proclamation of our Republic, these socio-political challenges continue to be a matter of critical urgency. In this era of rapid digitalisation and the emergence of techno-feudalism, where powerful agendas are increasingly amalgamated in digital and algorithmic structures, it is imperative to reflect on such pressing socio-political concerns through various forms of media, including cinema, to both mirror and shape public consciousness in contemporary times. Against this backdrop, ‘Papilio Buddha’ (2013), a Malayalam-English-based bilingual film is an engrossing cinematic exploration of caste oppression and resistance in India. The term “Papilio Buddha”, which refers to a rare butterfly native to the Western Ghats of Kerala, has a symbolic meaning that underscores the themes of transformation and resilience within the film.
Papilio Buddha, directed by Jayan K. Cherian, an American-based filmmaker, follows a group of Dalits in the hilly regions of the Western Ghats engaged in a non-violent struggle against the authorities for land rights, which is demonstrated through their struggle for the Meppara Estate. By invoking figures such as Ambedkar, Ayyankali and Buddha throughout the movie, Cherian documents the trajectory of the struggle for land rights for over a year, with mundane everyday picturisation of the lives and challenges encountered by the people of the above-mentioned region.
The movie primarily shows the ideological evolution of the protagonist Shankaran, a Dalit, who initially wishes to adopt a Western liberal lifestyle but is later disenchanted by the hollow sloganeering and talks of ostensibly important topics like globalisation, imperialism, etc., and criticism of the struggle of Dalit land rights. The story arc is reminiscent of the classic ‘Albert Pinto Ko Gussa Kyun Aata hai’, a rant against the state of the nation, in which Albert symbolised the frustration of the common man, saying, “Iss country ka to god hi rakhwala hai”, films like these portray the participation of the lower middle class and the “other voices” as a critique to the existing inequalities, whereby Shankaran reclaims his identity and begins sympathising with the cause of the landless labourers and the struggle of the oppressed caste communities. This film provides a vision of how the contemporary nation and dominant political discourses have continuously betrayed the lower castes. Shankaran’s inner voice says, “Even though he is in the bright light, he is invisible, no one notices him….”, exposing the failure of the political organisations and discourses to address the discrimination and forced deprivation of the disadvantaged castes.
While it is based on the evolution of Shankaran’s ideology, it also touches upon the structural violence the Dalits in the Western Ghats endure at large, especially the multifaceted oppression faced by Dalit women within the community, further delving into the intersection of caste and gender. Within the narrative surrounding marginalised characters confronting systemic injustices including land rights, poverty, environmental degradation and discrimination, the film vividly reveals and resonates with Dalit women’s struggles for recognition and dignity through various characters, mainly the character of Manjusree, a brave activist and auto-rickshaw driver who fancies Shankaran. Through both Manjusree and Shankaran’s experiences, this film attacks systemic oppression and Dalit violence. Manjusree faces hostility from local male drivers who brutally gang-rape and assault her when she dares to confront them. This event is a turning point in their struggle, as local Dalits protest and demand justice for her, while Manjusree continues to advocate for her rights. This multi-layered narrative shows different shades of authoritative oppression and police brutality at various levels. The detention of Shankaran and the American national he works with shows the burgeoning trend in recent years to incarcerate Dalit-Tribal rights activists and advocates under bogus charges of being insurgents (or Maoists), and the systematic witch-hunt programmes to subdue voices of resistance (Kumar, 2010). These portrayals spur broader debates surrounding violence against Dalits and blatant neglect of Dalit causes.
The film offers a nuanced discourse on Ambedkarite ideology, portraying how it is often at loggerheads with Gandhian and Neo-Gandhian principles — thereby, as H.S. Komalesha (2015) argues, renewing the classic Gandhi-Ambedkar contradiction from a century ago. Papilio Buddha intends to deconstruct Gandhi’s problematic stance to suppress marginalised Dalit voices in India and criticises Gandhian methods of “Satyagraha,” following the Neo-Gandhian strategies used by Ramdas to vacate the land for the government and destroy the Dalit movement, eventually facing protest and slogans by Dalits saying that they are anybody’s Harijans. Shankaran points out Ambedkar’s views on Gandhian methods, stating that Satyagraha is one of the most corrosive acts. It is crucial to note that Papilio Buddha highlights significant shifts in Dalit perspectives, marking a transformative phase in the movement — particularly the rejection of Hinduism, Sanatana Dharma, and the caste system, which have long been wielded as instruments of oppression against the Dalit community, as also critiqued by Arundhati Roy (Roy, 2017).
Furthermore, it can be viewed as an exploration of the rise of Buddhism as an alternative faith amongst Dalits. The film employs the lens of Dr. Ambedkar’s seminal text ‘The Annihilation of Caste’, emphasising the immediate need to establish an egalitarian society. Another issue that the movie brings to the fore is the existence of discriminatory ideas even in India’s minority religions, as stated in the findings of the Justice Ranganath Misra Commission’s report, which concluded that the phenomenon of caste is a universal phenomenon in the Indian society and not limited to the particular religion.
What makes the film more pertinent in contemporary times is that it revolves around the argument that local feudal lords and authorities enter into an unholy alliance with the state machinery to forcefully grab land and deprive the Dalits of their rights to this day (Kar, 2018). Furthermore, the internalised caste pride that is psychologically ingrained in those belonging to the oppressor communities is portrayed through a seemingly anti-caste NGO called “SEEM” (Social and Educational Empowerment for the Marginalized) and its members who claim to work for the Pulaya Dalits, but are themselves a party to their discrimination (Sophan & Nair, 2023).
While the film tacitly suggests a neoliberal assault on the marginalised populace—alongside the evident deprivation and atrocities rooted in caste and gender—what would have made it more ad rem for me is a more direct display and exploration of this interplay, especially in light of the existing state of affairs in the country. In addition to the denunciation of the caste system, had it been able to showcase the said interplay, it would have been a more complete comprehension of contemporary times and placed accountability precisely where it needed to be.
Papilio Buddha, as a socially conscious movie, intends to place the emancipatory ideas of annihilation of caste as envisaged by Dr Ambedkar vis-a-vis Gandhi’s ‘compromised’ path and methods of Satyagraha even in the face of relentless state oppression and atrocities. It tackles the contentious question of caste, reveals the ineffectiveness of Gandhism and Left-wing politics in Dalit issues, and points to Ambedkarism and Buddhism as ways to forge a coherent Dalit consciousness (Venkatesan & James, 2017). Cherian’s style blends activism along with film-making, whereby his work is not only a documentation but a call for action for assertive social justice. The urgent need for a societal overhaul and reorganisation is at the heart of this project. In a nutshell, this movie is a protest in contemporary times that exposes the hegemonic power structures and goes back to the dominant ideological discourses, while upholding the legacy of Dr. Ambedkar and Dalit consciousness.
REFERENCES
Ambedkar, B. R. (1990). Annihilation of Caste: An undelivered speech. Arnold Publishers. (Original work published 1936)
Cherian J. K. (2013). Papilio Buddha [Motion Picture]. India: Kayal Films.
Kar, G. (2018). The Enduring Prevalence of Semi-feudal Agrarian Relations in India. Journal of Labour and Society, 21(2), 193–213.
Komalesha, H. S. (2015). Reconciling Gandhi with Ambedkar. Economic and Political Weekly, 50(34), 75–76. http://www.jstor.org/stable/24482598
Kumar, A. (2010). Atrocities on Dalits: A Human Rights Perspective. ILI Law Review, 1(1), 54.
Mosse, D. (2012). Caste and Christianity. Seminar, 633, 58–63.
Raj, R. (2013). Dalit Women as Political Agents: A Kerala Experience. Economic and Political Weekly, 48(18), 56–63. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23527309
Roy, A. (2017). The Doctor and the Saint. Haymarket Books.
Sophlan, A., & Nair, A. (2023). Decolonising Caste in the Indian Context: The Psyche of the Oppressor. Psychology and Developing Societies, 35(1), 110–130.
Venkatesan, S., & Rajesh, J. (2017). Casting Caste: Dalit Identity, Papilio Buddha, and Malayalam Cinema. Economic and Political Weekly, 52(49), 48-52 http://www.jstor.org/stable/26697952
Geeta Kumari is a Ph.D research scholar in Spanish and Latin American Literature and Culture at the Centre of Spanish, Portuguese, Italian and Latin American Studies (CSPILAS), Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi. Her academic journey delves into the rich worlds of Spanish, Latin American and Indian literature and culture. Her academic path is shaped by a deep love for stories—those told through texts, films, and lived experiences. With a keen interest in gender, sexuality, and visual narratives, her work blends academic depth with cultural curiosity.
She can be reached at- jhageetajnu@gmail.com
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